HOW TO USE COMMA

THE COMMA

There are some general rules which you can apply when using the comma. However, you will find that in English there are many other ways to use the comma to add to the meaning of a sentence or to emphasise an item, point, or meaning.

Although we are often taught that commas are used to help us add 'breathing spaces' to sentences they are, in fact, more accurately used to organise blocks of thought or logical groupings. Most people use commas to ensure that meaning is clear and, despite grammatical rules, will drop a comma if their meaning is retained without it.

SEPARATE PHRASES, WORDS, OR CLAUSES IN LISTS

When making a list, commas are the most common way to separate one list item from the next. The final two items in the list are usually separated by "and" or "or", which should be preceeded by a comma. Amongst editors this final comma in a list is known as the "Oxford Comma".

A SERIES OF INDEPENDANT CLAUSES (SENTENCES)

EXAMPLES

• I met Harry, we went for a swim together, and afterwards Harry went home.
• I like your son, I might even love him, but he is not a very good soccer player.

A SERIES OF NOUNS

EXAMPLES

• For dinner I had soup, fish, chicken, dessert, and coffee.
• This afternoon I went to Oxford Circus, Picadilly, Hamstead, and Gatwick Airport.

A SERIES OF ADJECTIVES

A list of adjectives usually requires commas. However, if an adjective is modifying another adjective you do not separate them with a comma (sentence 3).

EXAMPLES

• She was young, beautiful, kind, and intelligent.
• The house we visited was dark, dreary, and run-down.
• She was wearing a bright red shirt.

A SERIES OF VERBS

EXAMPLES

• Tony ran towards me, fell, yelled, and fainted.
• The boy leapt, spun, twisted, and dove into the water.

A SERIES OF PHRASES

EXAMPLES

• The car smashed into the wall, flipped onto its roof, slid along the road, and finally stopped against a tree.
• The dog leapt into the air, snatched the frisbee in its mouth, landed, and ran off into the forest.

ENCLOSING DETAILS

Use a comma to enclose non-defining relative clauses and other non-essential details and comments. The comma is placed on either side of the insertion.

EXAMPLES

• China, one of the most powerful nations on Earth, has a huge population.
• Jason's grandmother, who was born in 1930, lived through the Second World War.
• Cats, unlike dogs, do not respect their masters.
• My friend, Jim, likes to go scuba diving.

PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

EXAMPLES

• Hearing that her father was in hospital, Jane left work immediately.
• Walking to the bus stop that morning, Sam knew it was going to be a special day.

TAG QUESTIONS

EXAMPLES

• She lives in Paris, doesn't she?
• We haven't met, have we?

INTERJECTIONS

EXAMPLES

• Yes, I will stay a little longer, thank you.
• No, he isn't like other boys.
• Wait, I didn't mean to scare you.

A FINAL WARNING

Putting a comma in the wrong place can lead to a sentence with a completely different meaning, look at these two sentences:
I detest liars like you; I believe that honesty is the best policy. = I detest you because you are a liar.
I detest liars, like you; I believe that honesty is the best policy. = You and I both detest liars.

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation is used to create sense, clarity and stress in sentences. You use punctuation marks to structure and organise your writing.

You can quickly see why punctuation is important if you try and read this sentence which has no punctuation at all:

perhaps you dont always need to use commas periods colons etc to make sentences clear when i am in a hurry tired cold lazy or angry i sometimes leave out punctuation marks grammar is stupid i can write without it and dont need it my uncle Harry once said he was not very clever and i never understood a word he wrote to me i think ill learn some punctuation not too much enough to write to Uncle Harry he needs some help

Now let's see if punctuating it makes a difference!

Perhaps you don't always need to use commas, periods, colons etc. to make sentences clear. When I am in a hurry, tired, cold, lazy, or angry I sometimes leave out punctuation marks. "Grammar is stupid! I can write without it and don't need it," my uncle Harry once said. He was not very clever, and I never understood a word he wrote to me. I think I'll learn some punctuation - not too much, enough to write to Uncle Harry. He needs some help!

Use the pages in this punctuation section to learn how to make your English clearer and better organised.

PUNCTUATION RULES IN ENGLISH

• the period (or full stop in British English)
• the comma
• the exclamation mark
• the question mark
• the colon
• the semicolon
• the quotation mark
• the apostrophe
• the hyphen and the dash
• parentheses and brackets

THE PERIOD, FULL STOP OR POINT

The period (known as a full stop in British English) is probably the simplest of the punctuation marks to use. You use it like a knife to cut the sentences to the required length. Generally, you can break up the sentences using the full stop at the end of a logical and complete thought that looks and sounds right to you.

MARK THE END OF A SENTENCE WHICH IS NOT A QUESTION OR AN EXCLAMATION

EXAMPLES

• Rome is the capital of Italy.
• I was born in Australia and now live in Indonesia.
• The Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader of the Tibetan people.

INDICATE AN ABBREVIATION

Many abbreviations require a period. Dr, Mr, Mrs, and Ms do not take a period in British English, nor do most abbreviations taken from the first capital letters such as MA, Phd, or CIA. In American English, some of these do require periods or both usages are correct (with and without periods). If you require 100% accuracy in your punctuation, refer to a detailed style guide for the abbreviation usage rules in the variety of English you are using.

EXAMPLES

• I will arrive between 6 a.m. and 7 a.m.
• We are coming on Fri., Jan. 4.

ELLIPSIS

Often you will see a sentence concluding with three dots. This indicates that only part of the sentence or text has been quoted or that it is being left up to the reader to complete the thought.

EXAMPLES

• The Lord's Prayer begins, "Our Father which art in Heaven...'"
• He is always late, but you know how I feel about that...

PERIOD AFTER A SINGLE WORD

Sometimes a single word can form the sentence. In this case you place a fullstop after the word as you would in any other sentence. This is often the case when the subject is understood as in a greeting or a command.

EXAMPLES

• "Goodbye."
• "Stop."

PERIODS IN NUMBERS

Numbers use periods in English to separate the whole number from the decimal. A period used in a number is also called a "decimal point" and it is read "point" unless it refers to money.

EXAMPLES

• 10.43$ = ten dollars and 43 cents
• 14.17 = fourteen point one seven

INFINITIVE

FORMING THE INFINITIVE

The infinitive is the base form of a verb. In English, when we talk about the infinitive we are usually referring to the present infinitive, which is the most common. There are, however, four other forms of the infinititive: the perfect infinitive, the perfect continuous infinitive, the continuous infinitive, & the passive infinitive.

The infinitive has two forms:

• the to-infinitive = to + base
• the zero infinitive = base

The present infinitive base is the verb form you will find in a dictionary.

To-infinitive	Zero infinitive
to sit	sit
to eat	eat
to have	have
to remember	remember

The negative infinitive is formed by putting not in front of any form of the infinitive.

EXAMPLES

• I decided not to go to London.
• He asked me not to be late.
• I'd like you not to sing so loudly.
• I'd rather not eat meat.
• I might not come.

FUNCTIONS OF THE TO-INFINITIVE

The to-infinitive is used in many sentence constructions, often expressing the purpose of something or someone's opinion about something. The to-infinitive is used following a large collection of different verbs as well. See this page about verbs followed by infinitives.

THE TO-INFINITIVE TO INDICATE THE PURPOSE OR INTENTION OF AN ACTION

In this case to has the same meaning as in order to or so as to.

EXAMPLES

• She came to collect her pay cheque.
• The three bears went to find firewood.
• I am calling to ask you about dad.
• You sister has gone to finish her homework.

THE TO-INFINITIVE AS THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE

This is a formal usage and is far more common in written English than spoken

EXAMPLES

• To be or not to be, that is the question.
• To know her is to love her.
• To visit the Grand Canyon is my life-long dream.
• To understand statistics, that is our aim.

THE TO-INFINITIVE TO INDICATE WHAT SOMETHING CAN OR WILL BE USED FOR

In this pattern, the to-infinitive follows a noun or pronoun.

EXAMPLES

• The children need a garden to play in.
• I would like a sandwich to eat.
• I don't have anything to wear.
• Would you like something to drink?

THE TO-INFINITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES

There is a common pattern using the to-infinitive with an adjective. These phrases are formed:
subject + to be + adjective + (for/of someone) + to-infinitive + (rest of sentence)

Subject	+ to be	+ adjective	(+ for/of someone)	+ to-infinitive	(+ rest of sentence)
It	is	good		to talk.
It	is	good	of you	to talk	to me.
It	is	important		to be patient.
It	is	important	for Jake	to be patient	with his little brother.
I	am	happy		to be	here.
The dog	is	naughty		to destroy	our couch.

THE TO-INFINITIVE TO MAKE A COMMENT OR JUDGEMENT

To use the to-infinitive when making a comment or judgement about a noun, the pattern is:
Subject + to be + noun phrase + to-infinitive

Subject	+ to be	+ noun phrase	+ to-infinitive
It	was	a stupid place	to park.
That	is	a dangerous way	to behave.
What you said	was	a rude thing	to say.
This	is	the right thing	to do.
Those	were	the wrong kind of eggs	to buy.
Jim	is	the best person	to hire.

THE TO-INFINITIVE WITH ADVERBS

The to-infinitive is used frequently with the adverbs too and enough to express the reasoning behind our satisfaction or insatisfaction. The pattern is that too and enough are placed before or after the adjective, adverb, or noun that they modify in the same way they would be without the to-infinitive. We then follow them by the to-infinitive to explain the reason why the quantity is excessive, sufficient, or insufficient. Normally the to-infinitive and everything that follows can be removed, leaving a sentence that still functions grammatically.

EXAMPLES

• There's too much sugar to put in this bowl.
• I had too many books to carry.
• This soup is too hot to eat.
• She was too tired to work.
• He arrived too late to see the actors.
• I've had enough food to eat.
• She's old enough to make up her own mind.
• There isn't enough snow to ski on.
• You're not old enough to have grand-children!

THE TO-INFINITIVE WITH QUESTION WORDS

The verbs ask, decide, explain, forget, know, show, tell, & understand can be followed by a question word such as where, how, what, who, & when + the to-infinitive.

EXAMPLES

• She asked me how to use the washing machine.
• Do you understand what to do?
• Tell me when to press the button.
• I've forgotten where to put this little screw.
• I'm not sure I know who to call.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ZERO INFINITIVE

THE ZERO INFINITIVE AFTER AUXILIARIES

EXAMPLES

• She can't speak to you.
• He should give her some money.
• Shall I talk to him?
• Would you like a cup of coffee?
• I might stay another night in the hotel.
• They must leave before 10.00 a.m.

THE ZERO INFINITIVE AFTER VERBS OF PERCEPTION

With verbs of perception, the pattern is verb + object + zero infinitive.

EXAMPLES

• He saw her fall from the cliff.
• We heard them close the door.
• They saw us walk toward the lake.
• She felt the spider crawl up her leg.

THE ZERO INFINITIVE AFTER THE VERBS 'MAKE' AND 'LET'

EXAMPLES

• Her parents let her stay out late.
• Let's go to the cinema tonight.
• You made me come with you.
• Don't make me study that boring grammar book!

THE ZERO INFINITIVE AFTER THE EXPRESSION 'HAD BETTER'

EXAMPLES

• We had better take some warm clothing.
• She had better ask him not to come.
• We had better reserve a room in the hotel.
• You'd better give me your address.
• They had better work harder on their homework.

THE ZERO INFINITIVE WITH "WHY"

The question word why is followed by the zero infinitive when making suggestions.

EXAMPLES

• Why wait until tomorrow?
• Why not ask him now?
• Why leave before the end of the game?
• Why walk when we can go in the car?
• Why not buy a new bed?

KNOW YOUR TENSES

VERBS

Selecting the correct verb tense and conjugating verbs correctly is tricky in English. Click on the verb tense to read more about how to form this tense and how it is used, or select a time to see the full list of tenses and references on that time.

Present Tenses in English	Examples
Simple present tense	They walk home.
Present continuous tense	They are walking home.
Past Tenses in English
Simple past tense	Peter lived in China in 1965.
Past continuous tense	I was reading when she arrived.
Perfect Tenses in English
Present perfect tense	I have lived here since 1987.
Present perfect continuous	I have been living here for years.
Past perfect	We had been to see her several times before she visited us.
Past perfect continuous	He had been watching her for some time when she turned and smiled.
Future perfect	We will have arrived in the States by the time you get this letter.
Future perfect continuous	By the end of your course, you will have been studying for five years.
Future Tenses in English
Simple future tense	They will go to Italy next week.
Future continuous tense	I will be travelling by train.
Conditional Tenses in English
Zero conditional	If ice gets hot it melts.
Type 1 conditional	If he had the money he would go.
Type 2 conditional	If he was in Australia he would be getting up now.
Type 3 conditional	She would have visited me if she had had time.
Mixed conditional	I would have been playing tennis if I hadn't broken my arm.
The -ing forms in English
Gerund	I like swimming.
Present participle	She goes running every morning.

MIND YOUR ENGLISH

I vs Me

Mistakes made with the English pronouns I and me have been increasing exponentially for years. The difference is actually very simple – let me explain it to you.

I

I is the first person singular subject pronoun, which means that it refers to the person performing the action of a verb.

I want to go.

This is the one I like.

You and I need to get ready.

Tom and I are going to the movies.

Me

Me is an object pronoun, which means that it refers to the person that the action of a verb is being done to, or to whom a preposition refers.

David told me to leave.

He gave me ten dollars.

MIND YOUR ENGLISH

            Everyday vs Every day

Everyday and every day are commonly confused in English. There’s no difference in pronunciation, but using the wrong one when writing is a mistake in the everyday English you use every day.

Everyday

Everyday is an adjective that means commonplace, ordinary, or normal.

Examples

1. Dumso-dumso is an everyday occurrence in Ghana
2. These shoes are great for everyday wear.
3. You shouldn't wear an everyday outfit to the wedding.

Every day

Every day means "each day."

Examples

• Mr. Abotsi goes to the school every day.
• I have to work every day this week except Friday.
• Every day I feel a little better.

MIND YOUR ENGLISH

The words that we used the sages say are like the waters of rivers they do not pass the same way again.

Note that when it comes to family relationships, we avoid the use of the words junior and senior and rather go for older or elder or younger.

Thus we say or write:

His younger brother is in SHS 1.

Our elder brother has gone to Akatsi.

 The expressions it is time, it is about time, and it is high time are always followed by a verb in the past tense, unless the verb is preceded by to.

EXAMPMES

1.    It’s time we did something about our students’ performance.

2.    It’s about time I learnt some French.

3.    It’s high time the government paid teachers well.

 The expressions hardly had he and scarcely had he mean the same and must be followed by when, not that or than or then

EXAMPLES

·       Scarcely had she left when her husband called.

·       Hardly had he gone when his father arrived.

A different form of the same expression uses No sooner instead of hardly or scarcely and that takes than because of the element of comparison in the expression no sooner

Examples

·       No sooner had she left than her husband called.

·       No sooner had he gone than his father arrived.